TOOLS & TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES FOR CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Assessment is a systematic process of gathering information about what a student knows, is able to do, and is learning to do. Assessment information provides the foundation for decision-making and planning for instruction and learning. Assessment is an integral part of instruction that enhances, empowers, and celebrates student learning. Using a variety of assessment techniques, teachers gather information about what students know and are able to do, and provide positive, supportive feedback to students. They also use this information to diagnose individual needs and to improve their instructional programs, which in turn helps students learn more effectively.

Assessment must be considered during the planning stage of instruction when learning outcomes and teaching methods are being targeted. It is a continuous activity, not something to be dealt with only at the end of a unit of study. Students should be made aware of the expected outcomes of the course and the procedures to be used in assessing performance relative to the learning outcomes. Students can gradually become more actively involved in the assessment process in order to develop lifelong learning skills.

Evaluation refers to the decision making which follows assessment. Evaluation is a judgment regarding the quality, value, or worth of a response, product, or performance based on established criteria and curriculum standards. Evaluation should reflect the intended learning outcomes of the curriculum and be consistent with the approach used to teach the language in the classroom. But it should also be sensitive to differences in culture, gender, and socio-economic background. Students should be given opportunities to demonstrate the full extent of their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Evaluation is also used for reporting progress to parents or guardians, and for making decisions related to such things as student promotion and awards.

Classroom Assessment is a systematic approach to formative evaluation, used by instructors to determine how much and how well students are learning. Classroom assessment tools and techniques and other informal assessment tools provide key information during the semester regarding teaching and learning so that changes can be made as necessary. The central purpose of Classroom Assessment is to empower both teachers and their students to improve the quality of learning in the classroom through an approach that is learner-centered, teacher-directed, mutually beneficial, formative, context-specific, and firmly rooted in good practice. It helps for assessing course-related knowledge and skills, learner attitudes, values and self-awareness and for assessing learner reactions to instruction.

            In the classroom, teachers are the primary assessors of students. Teachers design assessment tools with two broad purposes: to collect information that will inform classroom instruction, and to monitor students’ progress towards achieving year-end learning outcomes. Teachers also assist students in developing self-monitoring and self-assessment skills and strategies. To do this effectively, teachers must ensure that students are involved in setting learning goals, developing action plans, and using assessment processes to monitor their achievement of goals. The different tools and techniques used in classroom assessment are the following ;

·        Observation,

·        Self Reporting,

·        Testing;

·        Anecdotal Records,

·        Check Lists,

·        Rating Scale,

OBSERVATION

From the earliest history of scientific activity, observation has been the prevailing methods of inquiry. Observation of natural phenomena judged by systematic classification and measurement led to the development of theories and laws of nature’s force. Observation is one of the most refined modern research technique. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by walking them in action as they express themselves in various situations and activities. It can be made progressively more scientific to meet the needs of the particular situation and observation is a fundamental tool even at the most advanced levels of science.

Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when one is interested in their  overt behavior. Observation is defined as “a planned methodological watching that involves constraints to improve accuracy.” According to Gardner (1975), observation is the selection, provocation, recording and encoding of that set of behaviours and settings concerning organism “in situ’ whcih arc consistent with empirical aims.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION

1.         Observation is at once a physical as well as mental activity.

2.       Observation is selective and purposeful.

3.       Scientific observation is systematic

4.       Observation is specific 5) Scientific observation is objective.

5.       Scientific observation is quantitative.

6.       The record of observation is immediately.

7.       Observation is verifiable

8.       Behavior is observed is natural surroundings

9.       It enables understanding  significant events affecting social

                                                               i.      relations  of the participants.

10.     It determines reality from the perspective of observed person himself.

11.       It identifies regularities and recurrences in social life by comparing data is one study with those in another study.

12.     It focused on hypotheses free inquiry

13.     It avoids manipulations in the independent variable.

14.     Observation involves some controls pertaining to the observe and to the means he uses to record data.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1)                Casual & Scientific observation

An observation may be either casual or scientific. Casual observation occurs without any previous preparations. Scientific observation is carried out with the help of tools of measurement.

2)                Simple and systematic observation

Observation is found in almost all research studies, at least in the exploratory stage. Such data collection is often called simple observation. Its practice is not very standardized. Systematic observation it employs standardized procedures, training of observers, schedules for recording.

3.                 Subjective and Objective Observation

One may have to observe one’s own immediate experience, it is called subjective observation. In any investigations, the observer is an entity apart from the thing observed, that type of observation is called objective observation

4.                 Intra – subjective and inter subjective observation

If repeated observation of a constant phenomenon by the same observer yield constant data the observation is said to be intra subjective. If repeated observations of a constant phenomenon by different observers yield constant data the observation is said to be inter subjective

5.                 Direct and indirect observation

The direct observation describes the situation in which the observer is physically present and personally monitors what take place. Indirect observation is used to describe studies in which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic means.

6.                 Structured and Un structured observation

Structured observation is organised and planned which employs formal procedures, has a  set of well defined observation categories, and is subjectd to high levels of control and differentiation. Unstructured observations is loosely organized and the process is largely left to the observer to define.

7.                 Natural and Artificial Observation

Natural observation is one in which observation is made in natural settings while artificial observation is one in which observation is made in a laboratory conditions

8.                 Participant and Non-participant observation

When the observer participates with the activities of these under study is called participant observation Merits:- Acquiring wide information, Easy in exchange of clear observation of neutral and real behavior. Limitations :- larger time required, greater resources required lack of objectivity.

When the observer does not actually participate in the activities of the group to be studied but simply present in the group it is common as non participant observation. The observer in this method makes not effort  to his influence or to create a relationship between him and the group.

Merits:- Acquiring information with influence , maintaining impartial status, maintaining objectivity and scientific outlet.

Limitations:- Inadequate and incomplete observation, subjectivity, Unnatural attitude of the subject matter of observation

Organization Of Field Observation

For valid and useful field observation, the following steps have be taken .

1.                 Determination of the method of study ie the field observation in relation to the phenomena.

2.                 Determination of the nature and limits of observation is the preparation of a plan of observation

3.                 Decision as of directness of observation ie the relationship between the observer and the subject must be direct.

4.                 Determination of Expert investigations /Agency of field observation is the person who makes observation may be the researcher himself or the field workers

5.                 Determination of time, place and subject to study

6.                 Provision of mechanical Appliances needed in the usage of various instrumental aids like camera, maps.

7.                 Data collection, having arranged all the necessary tools and equipments need for research.

8.                 Data analysis :- The data should be analyzed and processed

through classification, tabulation etc.

9.                 Generalization :- The interpretation leading to draw general conclusion

Steps In Observation.

1.                                Selection of the topic :- This refers to determining  the issue to be studied through observations  e.g.:- material conflict, riot etc.

2.                                Formulation of the topic :- This involves fixing up categories to be observed and pointing out situations in which cases are to be  observed.

3.                                Research design :- This determines identification of subjects to be observed preparing observation schedule if any and arranging entry in situations to be observed.

4.                                Collection of data :- This involves familiarization with the setting,  observation and recording.

5.                                Analysis of data :- The researcher analyze the data, prepares tables of interprets.

6.                                Report writing :- This involves writing of the report for submission to the sponsoring agency or for publication.

Guidelines To Effective Observation

1.                   Obtain Prior knowledge of what to observe.

2.                   Examine general and specific objective.

3.                   Define and Establish categories, each category or level of data being collected should be concisely and carefully  described by indicating the phenomena the investigator expects to find in each.

4.                   Observe carefully and critically.

5.                   Rate specific phenomena independently, using well defined

rating scale.

6.                   Devise a method of recording results ie the observation schedule.

7.                   Become well acquainted with the recording instrument.

8.                   Observers would separate the facts from their interpretation at a later time. They can observe the facts, and make interpretation at a later time.

9.                   Observations are to be checked and verified, wherever possible by repetition or by comparison with those of other competent observers.

Instruments In Observation

Instruments such as the camera, stopwatch, light meter, audiometer, SET meter, audio and video tape recorders, mechanical counter, and other devices like detailed field notes, checklist, maps, schedules, store cards , socio-metric scales etc make possible observations that are more precise than mere sense observations. Such things are also referred as techniques of control as used in controlled observation.

Process Of Observation

Observation involves three process ie sensation , attention perception. Sensation in gained through the sense organs which depends upon the physical alertness of the observer. Then comes attention on concentration which is largely a matter of habit. The third is perception which comprises the interpretation of sensory reports.

Thus sensation merely reports the mind to recognize the facts.

Qualities Of A Good Observer

§  The observer should pocess efficient sense organs.

§  The observer must able to estimate rapidly and accurately

§  The observer must possess sufficient alertness’ to observer several details simultaneously .

§  The observer must be able to control the effects of his personal prejudices.

§  The observer should be in good physical conditions

§  The observer must be able to record immediately and Accurately

§  The observer should be a visiting stranger, an attentive, listener eager learner of a participant observer.

VARIOUS STEPS OF GOOD OBSERVATION

1.                 Intelligent planning

Intelligent planning should be needed in a good observation, the observer should be fully trained as well equipped, too many variables may not be observed simultaneously, the conditions of observation should remain constant.

2.                 Expert execution

An expert execution demands  utilizing the training received in terms of expertness, proper, arrangement of special conditions for the subject, occupying, phisical observing, focussing attention on the specific well defined activities, observing discreet keeping in mind the length, number and intervals of observation decided up on and handling well the recording instruments to be used.

3.                 Adequate recording

The recording should be as comprehensive as possible to over all the points and not miss any substantive issues

4.                 Scientific Interpretation

The interpretation made and recorded comprehensively need to be interpreted carefully. So adequacies and competencies required for this need to be present in an observer. This alone facilities a good interpretation.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1.                 It allows collection of wide range of information

2.                 It is a flexible technique in which research design can be modified at any time

3.                 It is less complicated and less time consuming.

4.                 It approaches reality in its natural structure and studies events as they evolve.

5.                 It is relatively inexpenience

6.                 The observer can assess the emotional reaction of subjects.

7.                 The observer is able to record the content which gives meaning to respondant’s expression

8.                 The behaviour being observed in natural environment will not cause any bias.

9.                 Superior in data collection on dependable and convincing

10.            Greater accuracy and reliability of data.

11.            Results are more dependable and convincing

LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION

1.                 Establishing the validity of observation is always difficult

2.                 The problem of subjectivity also involved

3.                 There is the possibility of distortion of the phenomena through the very act of observing.

4.                 It is a slow and laborious process

5.                 The events may not be easily  classifiable

6.                 The data may be unmanageable

7.                 It is going to be a costly affair

8.                 It cannot offer quantitative generations.

SELF REPORTING

Self-reporting is one of the modern technique of assessing student’s views and personality. It gives a clear cut idea about student’s needs, attitudes, wants, etc. A self-report is a type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference. A self-report is any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. Examples of self-reports are questionnaires and interviews; self-reports are often used as a way of gaining participants' responses in observational studies and experiments.

            Questionnaires are a type of self-report method which consist of a set of questions usually in a highly structured written form. Questionnaires can contain both open questions and closed questions and participants record their own answers. Interviews are a type of spoken questionnaire where the interviewer records the responses. Interviews can be structured whereby there is a predetermined set of questions or unstructured whereby no questions are decided in advance. The main strength of self-report methods are that they are allowing participants to describe their own experiences rather than inferring this from observing participants. Questionnaires and interviews are often able to study large samples of people fairly easy and quickly. They are able to examine a large number of variables and can ask people to reveal behaviour and feelings which have been experienced in real situations. However participants may not respond truthfully, either because they cannot remember or because they wish to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner. Social desirability bias can be a big problem with self-report measures as participants often answer in a way to portray themselves in a good light. Questions are not always clear and we do not know if the respondent has really understood the question we would not be collecting valid data. If questionnaires are sent out, say via email or through tutor groups, response rate can be very low. Questions can often be leading. That is, they may be unwittingly forcing the respondent to give a particular reply.

Unstructured interviews can be very time consuming and difficult to carry out whereas structured interviews can restrict the respondents’ replies. Therefore psychologists often carry out semi-structured interviews which consist of some pre-determined questions and followed up with further questions which allow the respondent to develop their answers.

Closed questions are questions which provide a limited choice (for example, a participant’s age or their favourite type of football team), especially if the answer must be taken from a predetermined list. Such questions provide quantitative data, which is easy to analyse. However these questions do not allow the participant to give in-depth insights. Open questions are those questions which invite the respondent to provide answers in their own words and provide qualitative data. Although these type of questions are more difficult to analyse, they can produce more in-depth responses and tell the researcher what the participant actually thinks, rather than being restricted by categories.

One of the most common rating scales for self-reporting is the Likert scale. A statement is used and the participant decides how strongly they agree or disagree with the statements. One strength of Likert scales is that they can give an idea about how strongly a participant feels about something. This therefore gives more detail than a simple yes no answer. Another strength is that the data are quantitative, which are easy to analyse statistically.

The great advantage of self reporting is that it gives free environment to response or show their emotions. At the same time there may be possibilities for hiding natural emotions as per situations.